The legacy of human use in Amazonian palm communities along environmental and accessibility gradients

Aim: Palms are iconic and dominant elements of neotropical forests. In the Amazon region, palms have been used and managed by humans for food, material, medicine and other purposes for millennia. It is, however, debated to what extent the structure of modern palm communities reflects long-term human modification. Here, we investigate the complex interplay of ecological and societal factors that influence the distributions of both human-used and non-used palms in western Amazonia. Location: Amazonia. Time period: Present. Major taxa studied: Palms (Arecaceae). Methods: We used Bayesian hierarchical joint species distribution models to predict the distributions and environmental niche dimensions of 78 western Amazonian species, and to explore their relationships with their diversity of human uses and with specific uses (food, construction and medicine). The models were parameterized with a comprehensive set of field- and satellite-derived environmental predictors. Results: Our results suggest that a combination of ecological and anthropogenic fac-tors drive the present-day distributions of Amazonian palms. The modelled ecological niches of the species revealed use- related species-sorting along soil, climatic, accessibility and drainage gradients. We found peaks in the proportions of useful palms and their diversity of uses in fertile soils, close to rivers, and on floodplains. These are habitats favourable for human settlement, although they harbour naturally restricted palm species pools. We also found a negative correlation between predicted palm species richness and number of human uses across western Amazonia. Main conclusions: Soil characteristics, accessibility, and species pool size all contribute to defining palm–human relationships. At the basin scale, the signature of human use on palm communities was predicted to be stronger in the species- poor south- west than in central-western Amazonia. Overall, we conclude that environmental conditions have influenced modern Amazonian palm distributions both directly and indirectly, by regulating human settlement patterns and natural resource use over extended time periods.